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Hardware & System Infrastructure:

Processor States

  • Single State Processors:
    • Definition: Processors that can only operate at a single security level at any given time.
    • Example: A system dedicated to processing only confidential-level data, without the capability to handle data of different security levels simultaneously.
  • Multi-State Processors:
    • Definition: Processors capable of handling data at multiple security levels concurrently.
    • Example: A military system that simultaneously processes top-secret, secret, and unclassified data, ensuring that each data level remains isolated and secure.

MultiX Concepts

  1. Multitasking:
  • Definition: Allows for the concurrent execution of multiple applications on a computer, with the operating system managing task switching.
  • Example: Listening to music while browsing the web on a personal computer.
  • Multithreading:
    • Definition: Enables multiple concurrent tasks (threads) to run within a single program or process, often improving responsiveness and performance.
    • Example: A word processor might have one thread for typing, another for auto-saving, and another for spell checking, all running concurrently.
  • Multiprocessing:
    • Definition: Involves the use of multiple processors (or multiple cores within a single chip) in a system to enhance computing power and performance.
    • Example: Modern desktop computers often have multi-core CPUs (like quad-core or octa-core) that can process several tasks simultaneously.
  • Multiprogramming:
    • Definition: A technique resembling multitasking, primarily associated with mainframe systems, wherein multiple programs or tasks share the system's resources. Requires specialized programming to manage the tasks efficiently.
    • Example: A mainframe managing different jobs like data processing, printing, and calculations all at once.

    Memory

    1. Read-Only Memory (ROM):
    • Definition: Non-volatile memory with data permanently written during manufacturing.
    • Characteristics: Permanent storage; contents are "burned in" at the factory.
  • Random Access Memory (RAM):
    • Static RAM (SRAM): Uses flip-flops to store each bit of data.
    • Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Uses capacitors to store each bit of data and requires periodic refreshing.
    • Main volatile memory used for temporary storage while a computer is running. It loses its content when power is turned off.
    • Types:
  • Programmable ROMs:
    • Definition: Memory that can be programmed once by the user after manufacturing.
    • Definition: A memory chip that can be programmed, then later erased and reprogrammed using ultraviolet light.
    • Types:
      • Ultraviolet Erasable PROM (UVEPROM): Features a small window that exposes the chip for erasure via UV light.
      • Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM): Can be erased by applying specific electrical voltages, allowing for more selective data manipulation than UVEPROM.
    • Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM):
    • Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM):
  • Flash Memory:
    • Definition: A derivative of EEPROM; it's non-volatile and can be electronically erased and reprogrammed.
    • Characteristics: Commonly used in USB drives, SSDs, and memory cards due to its durability and quick access time.

    Storage

    1. Primary Storage (Memory):
    • Definition: Directly accessible by the CPU. This is where the operating system, application software, and data in current use are kept so they can be quickly reached by the computer's processor.
    • Examples: RAM (both SRAM and DRAM).
  • Secondary Storage:
    • Magnetic: Hard disk drives (HDDs).
    • Flash: Solid-state drives (SSDs) and USB drives.
    • Optical: CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs.
    • Definition: Non-volatile storage mediums that store data until it is deleted or overwritten. Data from secondary storage needs to be loaded into primary storage before being processed.
    • Types:
  • Access Types:
    • Random Access: Storage devices where data can be read or written at any location at any time.
    • Sequential Access: Storage devices where data has to be read or written sequentially. Accessing specific data means going through the data stored before it.

    Security Issues with Secondary Storage

    1. Unauthorized Data Extraction with Removable Media:
      • Implementing policies to restrict the use of removable media.
      • Deploying Data Loss Prevention (DLP) solutions to monitor and control data transfers.
    • Description: Portable secondary storage, like USB drives, can easily be used to copy and remove data from a system, leading to data breaches.
    • Mitigation:
  • Inadequate Protection Mechanisms:
    • Applying file and disk encryption.
    • Implementing robust access control policies.
    • Description: Without proper access controls and encryption, sensitive data on secondary storage can be accessed by unauthorized users.
    • Mitigation:
  • Data Persistence after Deletion or Formatting:
    • Employing secure deletion tools that overwrite data multiple times.
    • Physical destruction of storage for highly sensitive data.
    • Description: Even after files are deleted or media is formatted, data can often still be retrieved using specialized tools, posing a risk of unauthorized data recovery.
    • Mitigation:
  • Eavesdropping and Tapping on I/O Devices:
    • Using secure connections and protocols.
    • Regularly inspecting physical devices and connections for tampering, such as unexpected or unauthorized vampire taps.
    • Employing network monitoring tools to detect unusual data transfers or connections.
    • Description: Input/Output (I/O) devices connected to secondary storage can be vulnerable to eavesdropping or tapping, allowing malicious actors to intercept data or introduce unauthorized entry points. For instance, a "vampire tap" can be used to clandestinely connect to a network by piercing into a coaxial cable, enabling an attacker to monitor or inject data without being easily detected.
    • Mitigation:

    Firmware

    • Firmware is essentially specialized software stored on a ROM chip.
    • While ROM provides the foundational instructions to kickstart a device, firmware provides more specific instructions to ensure the device runs smoothly.
    • Apart from computers, firmware is commonly found in peripheral devices like printers to guide their operations.
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